Python basics

Wed Feb 13 11:11:22 EST 2013

This is a short summary of a small part of Python; it shows mostly the
common things and a few that I have trouble remembering.  I am not a
Python expert; caveat lector.

It is very easy to experiment with Python; just type the command and
start entering code.  As long as you maintain consistent indenting and
add one extra empty line after a block, it will execute on the fly.

It is also easy to get help:  run Python and type
	help
at the prompt.


Program structure: ============================================

A program usually has to import a number of modules; these are among the
more common:

	import sys, string, re, os, fileinput

Variables are typeless, but Python keeps track of what you've stored in
one and it won't let you away with silly constructs, like comparing
numbers to strings or adding them.  You will have to use conversion
functions like string.atof() (which require that the string be a number,
not just have a numeric prefix).

Variables are declared by initializing them, or by a global declaration
within a function to state that a variable is external; by default
variables are local to their functions.

Variables must be initialized; test whether a variable has a value with
	if v != None:

String constants are quoted with '...' or "..."  and backslashes are
interpreted.  Raw strings are written r'...' or r"..."  and backslashes
are not interpreted, so they are good for things like regular
expressions.  Triple quoted strings ''' and """ can include bare
newlines and are often used for documentation.

Lists take the place of arrays for casual use.  An empty list is defined
with
	v = []
and a non-empty list with
	v = [ 'val1', 'val2' ]
and elements are accessed with v[index] where indices run from 0 to
len(v)-1.  Add new elements at the end with v.append(val).  There are a
lot of other useful list operators, and you can use slices on lists as
well to pick up a range of subscripts.

Tuples are in effect immutable lists, but defined with () instead of [].
Functions can return tuples; tuples can also be used in assignments,
like
	(r, c) = get_row_col()

Dictionaries == hash tables.  
	dict = {}	# empty
	dict[anything] = whatever
	if dict.has_key(k):
  or
	if k in dict:

This creates a dictionary of 4 elements by spelling out the values:
	kw = { "if": 1, "for": 2, "while": 3, "else": 4 }

and this retrieves them:
	for (k,v) in kw:
		do whatever to k and v

Relational operators are as in C; comparisons seem to ignore the type
info so carefully maintained for arithmetic.

Control flow is unusual at least for the C tradition.  Grouping is
indicated by indentation only, parens are not needed, and control flow
constructs all use ":", as in

	if expr:
	   ...
	elif expr:
	   ...
	else:
	   ...

	while expr:
	   ...

	for i in range(min,max):
	for i in dict.keys():	# or whatever
	   ...

Indentation must be completely consistent throughout a file.  Two
to four spaces seems conventional.

Within a loop,
	break, as in C
	continue, as in C
Anywhere:
	pass is in effect a null statement, like a bare ; in C

Functions definitions give name and argument list:

   def name(arg1, arg2, arg3=defaultval, arg4=defaultval):
       statements of function
   
   def div(num, denom):
       ''' computes quotient & remainder.
           denom had better be > 0'''
       q = num / denom
       r = num % denom
       return (q, r)  # returns a tuple 

Arguments can include named arguments and there are mechanisms
for variable length lists and arrays of arguments.  When calling
a function, named arguments can appear (or not appear) in any
order; as a bad example, you could say
	(q,r) = div(denom=1, num=2)

Variables are local but you can read a global variable.  Local
names hide global ones without warning; watch out.

   def foo(args):
      global v1  # permits changing v1; without the decl, v1 is local
	         # even if there is a global v1, and you won't notice.

Exceptions:
	try:
	   whatever
	except:
	   recover from any error

Classes are defined with "class":

   class Stack:
      def __init__(self):  # constructor
         self.stack = []   # local var
      def push(self, obj):
         self.stack.append(obj)
      def pop(self):
         return self.stack.pop() # array.pop
      def len(self):
         return len(self.stack)
   
   stk = Stack()
   stk.push("foo")
   if stk.len() != 1: 
      print "error"
   if stk.pop() != "foo": 
      print "error"
   del stk

Member functions are always defined with "self" but that doesn't appear
in the call.  Within a class function function, you must use self.member
to access the member value; undecorated names are just local variables.

Class members are visible; there's not much hiding, so good behavior is
not enforced, only conventional: use _name for local variables.


Commandline arguments: =======================================

echo, brute force:

	import sys

	for i in range(1, len(sys.argv)):
	   if i < len(sys.argv):
	      print sys.argv[i],  # comma suppresses newline
	   else:
	      print sys.argv[i]


Input and output: ====================================

Simple open file and read it:

	import fileinput, sys
	
	def main():
	   lines = []
	   try:
	      f = open("foo")  # open(file, 'w+') to create & write
	   except:
	      print 'error'
	      return
	   line = f.readline()
	   while (line != ""):
	      lines.append(line[:-1])
	      line = f.readline()
	   print lines
	   f.close()
	
	main()

Call function count() on each input line, from stdin or a
list of files:

	wc = {}   # empty dictionary

	def count(f):
	   global wc
	   # do something to wc

	def main():
	   if len(sys.argv) == 1:
	      count(sys.stdin)
	   else:
	      for i in range(1,len(sys.argv)):
	         f = open(sys.argv[i])
	         count(f)
	         f.close()
	   for i in wc:
	      print "%s   %s" % (wc[i], i)

	main()

The print statement prints a list of expressions followed by a
newline; if the list ends with ",", no newline is printed (hack).
The % operator joins a format string and a list to produce a
formatted string; this provides the same effect as printf, as in 
	print "%d %s" % (wc[i], i)

The function raw_input([prompt]) prints an optional prompt string
and returns the user's response; the function getpass() gets a 
password without echoing it: 
	import getpass
	pw = getpass.getpass()


Associative arrays: ===============================================

The classic "add up name-value pairs" example:

   import sys, string
   val = {}   # empty dictionary

   def count(f):
      global val
      line = f.readline()
      while (line != ""):
         #line = line.strip()
         (n, v) = line.strip().split()
         if val.has_key(n):
            val[n] += string.atof(v)
         else:
            val[n] = string.atof(v)
         line = f.readline()

   def main():
      if len(sys.argv) == 1:
         count(sys.stdin)
      else:
         for i in range(1,len(sys.argv)):
            f = open(sys.argv[i])
            count(f)
            f.close()
      for i in val.keys():
         print "%s\t%g" % (i, val[i])
      # or for (k,v) in val: ...

   main()

Compute word frequency, but just by reading stdin into a giant string:

   wd = {}
   buf = sys.stdin.read()
   wordlist = string.split(buf) 
   for word in wordlist:
       if wd.has_key(word):
           wd[word] = wd[word] + 1
       else:
           wd[word] = 1
   for k, v in wd.iteritems():
       print k, v


String manipulation: ====================================================

Concatenate strings with +
	s = 'abc" + "def"
Use "..." % (list of exprs) for more complicated string construction.

The string class has lots of functions, and some things are taken care
of by slicing.  If s is a string,

	s[0] is the first character
	s[1:] is all but the first character
	s[:-1] is all but the last character
	s[1:-1] drops first and last characters

Slicing works for lists as well.


Regular expressions: ====================================================

	import re

r'...' is a quoted string that doesn't need an extra level of
backslashes:

	r_int	= r'(\d+)'
	r_num	= r'(\d+\.\d*|\.\d+|\d+)'
	s = re.sub(r',(\d\d\d)', r'\1', s)  # 12,345 -> 12345
	s = re.sub(r',(\d\d|\d)', r'.\1', s) # 12,34 -> 12.34

Fine print in manual: alternation goes left to right (not in parallel!!)
and stops when it has a match.  One must write carefully to get longest
match.  By default, re.sub replaces *all* instances; there's a fourth
count argument to set a limit.

Substrings
	matched parts are saved for later use in $1, $2, ...
		s/(\S+)\s+(\S+)/\2 \1/ swaps first two words

Qualifiers can be put inside the re; they include g for global
and i for case-insensitive XXX i think

Shorthands
	\d = digit, \D = non-digit
	\w = "word" character, i.e., [a-zA-Z0-9_], \W = non-word char
	\s = whitespace char, \S = non-whitespace
	\b = word boundary, \B = non-boundary


Gotchas and features: ===================================================

This list is far from complete:

	indentation for grouping; always need ":" for conditionals
	no implicit conversions in arithmetic expressions
		though seem to be for string comparisons
	tup = (...) to define a tuple; list = [...] for a list,
	   dict = {...} for a dictionary
		but access elements with [...] for all of these
	elif, not else if
	no do-while
	no ++, no --, no ?:
	function arguments passed call by reference (!)
	need global declaration to access non-local vars in functions
	if v != None: 
		needed to test for uninitialized variable
	all lines in a single string:
		buf = sys.stdin.read() reads all input lines
		but does not read them one at a time
	for i in dict is DIFFERENT from 
	     for i in dict.keys()
	regular expressions are not leftmost longest
		re.match is anchored, re.sub replaces all by default


Other random things added over time: ==================================

How to make a #! line for python that's works on systems with python in
different locations?  According to the python FAQ
      (http://www.python.org/infogami-faq/library/
      how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix/),
   #! /usr/bin/env python


How to make a module and use it:

in A.py:
   import sys

   class Ac:

     def p(self):
       print "this is Ac"

in B.py:
   import sys
   print sys.path

   import A

   a = A.Ac()
   a.p()