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PERFORMING ARTS
TRIBAL DANCES
The primitive inhabitants of Kerala, are only about two hundred thousand now and they are scattered in the jungles and hills of the state prominants. There are about 35 different types of the tribals, among them being the Kurichiyar, Nayadi, Mullakurumbar, Uralikurumbar, Paniya, Mudaga, Irula, Ernadar, Kadar, Muthuvan, Kanikkar, Uralees, Paliyan, Malavedan, Vettuvar, Eravallan, Veda and Malayan. They are unique examples of communities in isolated existence, still preserving their life, customs and manners almost untarnished by the advancing waves of urban civilization. Though adapted to different dialects and customs, their artistic expression evidently reflects the distinct, secluded and primitive social structure and nature of the people and it still survives as virile a state as ever in the tribal hamlets of the hilly tracts.
Each of these aboriginal tribes has its own distinct dance tradition and invariably all of them are interwoven with the life of the people who dance it, so much so that it seems that some of their daily tasks are given to rhythmic pattern. In the background of mystery shrouded nature, tribal celebrations originate and the dances work up intoxicating excitement physical expressions of their joys and griefs, hopes and fears.
Some times the dancing is extremely simple and consists of little more than shuffling of the feet or waving of the hands. At other times it is swaying of the body to the clapping of hands or beating of primitive drums to mark time. Yet another form shows only the monotonous movement of the hands and feet. But generally speaking, a wide range of movement involving all parts of the body, the head back hips, arms, fingers and the feet and even facial muscles are utilized in tribal dances.
There are very complicated tribal dances as well in which dancing harmonises gesture, expressing the whole gamut of sentiment, where rhythm is kept by swaying the body and intricate steps executed with adept foot-work. Usually the dances have a slow beginning, but gather momentum and work up to a heavy tempo of the vociferous climax of the drums, and the ecstacy of the ever-mounting rhythm of spontaneous music. Many of these dances are heroic or martial in character.
Some tribes have songs to accompany their dances. Either the dancers themselves sing or the on-lookers sing and thus participate. Special musical instruments are sometimes used, but the drum is almost an indispensable feature. The costumes of the dancers vary from approximate nudity to full attire and ornaments which are extremely colourful.
Like all tribal arts, Kerala's tribal dances are and spontaneous. It is the most direct expression of the inner most spirit of a people and the instinct of rhythm is an natural and basic as human nature.Some of the more known tribal dances of Kerala are Elelakkaradi, Kadarkali, Kurumbarkali, Paniyarkali, Edayarkali, Mudiyattam and Vedarkali.
ELELAKKARADI
This is highly heroic group-dance in which almost the whole community of men, women and children participate. The dance is very common with the tribals called Irular of Attappadi in Palakkad district. The dance brings out the fight of the people against the wild bears which very often attack their tribal hamlets.
KAADAR NRITHAM
Only women partake in this primitive dance of the Kaadar tribes of the forests of Kochi area. The performers arrange themselves in a semicircle. They hold the tip of their clothes in their hands to the level of the waist and wave it to various rhythms of the dance. It is a very simple but elegant tribal dance in slow steps.
KURUMBAR NRITHAM
Waynad district had different types of hill tribes of which the Kurumbar and the Kattunayakar are the most prominent. They perform a special type of dance which is staged in connection with marriages.
KAANIKKAR NRITHAM
This is a group dance of the Kanikkar tribes. The dance is performed as a rural offering. The steps of the dancers perfectly synchronise with the waving of the hands and the beating of the drums.
PANIYAR KALI
Paniyar are another set of tribals inhabiting the hilly forests of Wayanad district. Their dance is highly masculine and only men participate. Here the dancers numbering about eight or ten stand in a circle with hands linked together. They move around with rhythmic flexions of the body.
MAN KALI
The Ramayana episode in which Sita is being enhanted by Maricha in the guise of a golden deer is enacted in graceful movements.
PARVALLI KALI
It is mixed dance of the aboriginals of the dense forest of Travancore area in which both men and women participate. They dance holding arms together, or shoulder to shoulder, linked in a backlock posture. The dance develops into variety of pleasing pattern, in which the men and women change their positions with amazing speed.
KOORAN KALI
Koorankali is another tribal dance which is similar to Mankali. Here one man takes the role of a wild bear with another enacting the role of a wild bear with another enacting the role of a hunting dog. The movements are perfectly timed to the rhythmic beats of primitive drums. While this is going on, the large number of onlookers who form a circle round the two dancers, shout wild cries of joy with occasional clapping of hands and jerky dances.
THAVALA KALI
Thavalakali is a tribal dance in which a number of participants, usually boys, jump one above the other in succession, imitating the leaps of the frog.
EDAYA NRITHAM
Edaya nritham is the dance of the tribal shepherds. Both men and women participate. One of the shepherds sing. This is repeated in chorus by all the rest. As the singing is going in, one of them imitates the special sounds of shepherds driving their sheep.
MUDIYATTOM
Mudiyattom, also known as Neelilayattom, is a tribal dance in which only women partake. The women stand on small wooden blocks and the dance begins with slow and simple movements of the body which culminate in graceful movements of the head. The uncombed hair of the participants flow down and swing in rhythmic waves.
NAIKAR KALI
This is popular among the tribes in Wynad and Malappuram districts. It is more ritualistic than entertainment oriented. This is performed as pooja to family deities and during marriages.
When the instruments, Thappu and Kuzhal start playing, the naikars begin their performance. With jingling anklets round their legs, they dance round in clock-wise and anti-clockwise movements to the accompaniment of the instruments.
GADHIKA
Gadhika is ritual dance performed by Adiya tribes of Waynad district. The art form is meant to cure ailments. The performance is also done as part of a ritual for having a safe delivery of child.
FOLK DANCES
Kerala has a rich variety of folk dances. They are highly developed and reflect the temperaments and moods of the localities in music and custume. Nature silently and unobstrusively has moulded these dances just as the lives of the people who dance them. Religious colouring is seen in almost all of these folk dances, even in those performed in connection with harvests, sowing of seeds, festivals etc., so much so that their secular nature is always at doubt. There is difficulty in classifying these dances as social, religious and martial. Many of these dances are performed by men alone, some exclusively by women. There are also dances in which men and women perform together. Most of the folk dances are performed to the accompaniment of songs which are sung by the dancers themselves or occasionally by a group of musicians. Some dances are performed to the accompaniment of musical instruments only. In several dances the performers form a circle and clap as they dance. Sometimes, instead of clapping they strike small sticks which they hold in their hands. The customs and ornaments are peculiar to the places to which they belong. The eloquent, effortless ease with which the dances are executed and the overwhelming buoyancy of spirit are wonderful. In these folk dances there is no difference between the performers and the audience. Almost all of these folk dances are simple but beneath this simplicity is a profundity of conception and a directness of expression which are of a high artistic order.
There are more than fifty well-known folk dances in Kerala. Of them the Kaliyattom, Mudiettu, Kolam Thullal, Kolkli, Poorakkali, Velakali, Kamapadavukali, Kanniyarkali, Parichmuttukali, Thappukali, Kuravarkali and Thiruvathirakali are the most popular.
SANGHA KALI
This is also known as Sastrakali, Chathirakali or Vatrakali. Essentially a socio-religious dance which was a very favourite and popular pastime of Namboodiris, it was performed as a votive offering. The origin of Sanghakali may be traced to the numerous gymnasia (known as Kalaris) in ancient Kerala where physical exercises and military training with special stress on physical feats and swordsmanship were given.The last phase of the dance is called Kudameduppu. It is martial in character and actually in the form of combat exercise displaying the skill in swordsmanship and the mastery of techniques in the use of other weapons.
KAIKOTTI KALI / THIRUVATHIRAKALI
Kaikottikali, also known as Thiruvathirakali, is a very popular, graceful and symmetric group-dance of the women of Kerala often performed during festive seasons like Thiruvathira and Onam. It is a simple and gentle dance with the lasya element predominating, even though the thandava part is also brought in occasionally, when men also participate as seen in some parts of the Malabar area. Typically dressed in Kerala style with mundu and neriyathu and the hairbun bedecked with jasmine garlands the women dance in gay abandon, singing melodious Thiruvathira songs which are well-reputed for their literary flourish. One of the performers sing the first line of a song while the rest repeat it in chorus, clapping their hands in unison. Moving in a circle, clockwise and at times anticlockwise, at every step they gracefully bend sideways, the arms coming together in beautiful gestures, upwards and downwards and to either side, in order to clap.
MUDIYETTU
This is ritualistic dance springing form the Bhagavathy cult. The theme depicts the glory and triumph of Bhagavathy over the demon Darika. The characters are all heavily made up with gorgeous costumes, intricate and elaborate and with conventional facial paintings, tall head-gears etc. Attired and adorned exotically with a unique weirdness and hideousness, the characters seem quite supernatural.
KAKKARISSI KALI
Prevalent among the Kuravas of Thiruvananthapuram district, this group dance is very vociferous because of the shoutings of the participants and also the wild beatings of primitive drums like para, veekkan chenda etc.
DAPPU KALI
A group-dance of the Moplahs of Malabar. The performers from two rows of ten of twenty. They beat on the dappu which each dancer holds in his left hand and dance with exquisitely symmetrical swayings of the body and astonishing co-ordination of rhythm steps, flexion of body and timing of dappu.
KOLKKALI
A mixed dance in which both men and women participate. The performers move in a circle, striking small sticks and keeping rhythm with special steps. The circle expands and contracts as the dance progress. The accompanying music gradually rises in pitch and the dance reaches its climax.
POYKKULAU KALI
Also known as marakkalattom, this is a still-dance performed in connection with temple festivals. Theme songs are sung in which the fight of the goddess Durga on stills against the Asuras who attacked her in the guise of snakes, scorpions etc., are portrayed. The rhythm is kept by percussion instruments.
KOTHAMOORI
This is a dance prevalent among the Malavans of North Kerala. Models of oxen are made up with leaves and twigs, and carried on shoulders behind which numerous dancers with crude facial marks and skirts made of tender fronds of coconut, dance in exotic jubiliance to the accompaniment of instruments like chenda and kinni ( a bronze plate ).
POORAKKALI
A folk dance prevalent among the Thiyyas of Malabar, usually perfromed in Bhagavathy temples as a ritual offering during the month of Meenam (March - April). Poorakkali requires specially trained and highly experienced dancers quite thorough with all the techniques and feats of Kalaripayattu, a system of physical exercise formerly in vogue in Kerala. Standing round the traditional lamp, the performers, dance in eighteen different stages and rhythm, each phase being called a Niram.
PANNA
This is ritual dance propitiating the goddess Kali. Small temporary shrines are constructed and variously decorated. A branch of the Pala tree is taken round the temple by about 10 to 12 persons who dance all the way to the rhythm set by percussion instruments and to the vociferous shouting and chanting of the accompanying crowd.
SARPAM THULLAL
Many ancient family houses in Kerala have special snake shrines called Kavu. Sarpamthullal is usually performed in the courtyard of houses having snake shrines. This is a votive offering for family wealth and happiness. The dance is performed by members of a community.
AYYAPPAN VILAKKU
Numerous miniature temples are constructed out of tender coconut frond and plantain leaf-stalks. Then songs are sung on the legendary right between Ayyappan and Vavar. In tune with the various rhymes and thythms of this devotional song, two dancers in the costume and make up of Ayyappan and Vavar perform, striking with swords and defending with coconut fronds.
PARICHAMUTTU KALI
This is martial folk-dance which had its origin during the day when kalaripayattu, the famous physical exercise of swordplay and defence, was in vogue in Kerala. The performers dance with swords and shields in their hands, following the movements of sword fight, leaping forward, stepping back and moving round, all the time striking with the swords and defending with shields.
KAAVADIYATTOM
Mainly performed as a votive offering in temples where the presiding deity is Lord Subrah mania. Here a number of dancers dressed in yellow or rose clothes and smeared all over the body with ashes and each with an ornate kavadi on the shoulder, dance in a row to the rhythmic beatings of instruments like udukku, chenda, etc., Sometimes nagaswaram is also used.
BHADRAKALI THULLAL
This is a devotional offering of Pulayas for the deity Bhadrakali. Special pandals are constructed in the fields after the harvest and the dances are performed. They are quite drawn-out and have numerous phases.
VELA KALI
A martial dance of the Nair community. This depicts ancient warfare in Kerala in all its ferocity and valour. Armed with shining swords and shields and dressed in exotic costumes they dance with vigour and force. The dance ends with the victory of good evil.
PURATTU
The wood Purathu means limitation or mimicry. It is a humorous folk-play which many characters like Chettiar, Chettichi, Kuravan and Kurathi are cleverly imitated to evoke laughter.
KAMPADAVU KALI
A war dance which is the legacy of an ancient past. The dance is performed in circles and the dancers utter wild war cries as it gathers momentum. The group formations are many varied and the power and variety of rhythm exquisite.
AMMANATTOM
Ammana is a hollow metallic ball which contains numerous metallic pieces inside. Women perform the ammanattom dance, using four to twenty-four ammanas which are thrown up and caught deft missing none.
THOOKKAM
After worshipping the deity the performers gets over a one wheeled platform over which is the pillar like utholakam. There is a hook at one end of the utholakam to which is attached the backside skin of the dancer. This end is then raised up. Hooked to the utholakam, the dancer is thus suspend in the air almost horizontally in which posture he executes certain physical feats and dance movements and the whole platform is taken round the temple deity thrice.
AIVAR KALI
Aivar Kali literally means the play of the five sets. This is performed by members of Asari, Moosari, Kuravan, Thattan, and Kallasari communities. It is often staged in connection with temple festivals like Velela, Thalapoli etc.
PADAYANI
Padayani or padeni in colloquial speech, is one of the most colourful and spectacular folk arts associated with the festivals of certain temples in southern Kerala (Alappuzha, Kollam, Pathanamthitta and Kottayam districts). The word padayani literally means military formations or rows of army, but in this folk art we have mainly a series of divine and semi-divine impersonations wearing huge masks or Kolams of different shapes, colours and designs painted on the stalks of arecanut fronds. The most important of the kolams usually presented in a padayani performance are Bhairavi (Kali), Kolam (god of death), Yakshi (fairy), Pakshi (bird) etc.
THIYYATTU
A devotional offering performed in Bhadrakali temples. A set of performers known as Thiyyattunnis alone are entitles to perform it. The theme is usually the killing of Darika by Bhadrakali. The Unnis first draw the picture of Bhadrakali (called kalam) on the floor, with a five different types of colour powers. Then the dancer in the costume and make-up of Bhagavathy with special head gears, pleated skirts and painted face dances before the Kalam, to the accompaniment of devotional songs.
BHOOTHAM THULLAL
The concept is that the devil-aides (Bhoothams) of Lord Shiva are coming to see and enjoy the temple festival. The make-up of the Bhoothams consists of peculiar costumes, at once colourful and captivating. Large headgears, projecting rounded eyeballs, high-ridged noses, protruding tongue, flowing black hair behind the pleated skirts and overcoats all conspire to make the dancers appear completely supernatural.
KOLAM THULLAL
This is a ritual offering usually performed to get rid of the troubles caused by evil-spirits. Here a number of characters, with hideous make-up and flat big head-gears dance to the accompaniment of primitive percussion instruments.
THEYYAM
Theyyam, otherwise known as Kaliyattom, is an ancient socio religious ceremony performed in Kerala since very remote times. As the word Kaliyattom denotes, this is a sacred dance performance for Kali. Kaliyattom is sometimes called Theyyattom because every thera or village was duly bound to perform it. These names show that Kaliyattoms were special festivals of religious and social importance.
In ancient times every village of Kerala has its own common shrine called Kavu and it was imperative to have Kaliyattom performed in front of it. As the word Kali has also the meaning of "Safety" in Malayalam, Kaliyattom may have the significance of a sacred dance for social or family safety.
The Dravidians were worshippers of the ferocious goddess called Kottavai. To propitiate this goddess a peculiar dance was performed. It would not be mere conjecture to say that the old Kottavai dance performance was the actual foundation on which Kaliyattom took roots later on. As Kerala was primarily a land of people with Sakthi (Bhagavathi) worshippers, the Kaliyattom became very much a part and parcel of the social structure.
Kali worhip made its stronghold especially in the northern parts of Kerala, known as the Kolathirinad, the ancient kingdom of Kolathiri (Chirakkal Raja). Therefore it was Kolathunad (North Malabar) that Kaliyattom flourished more than in any other part of Kerala, In this way, a wide range of Kaliyattom nurtured and developed. With the passage of time along with different aspects of Kali, various other Kolams of heroes and heroines were defined and special Kolams were attributed to them. Thus we find Sankaracharya as Pottan Daivam, Thacholi Othenan as Ponniatu Pataveeran, Katangot Makka as Makkapottu and the great commander of the Kolathiri militia as Vayanattukulavan.
In short, in Kaliyattom, permanent forms and special attributes are given to Kolams and divine as well as hero worship is substantially and methodically carried out.
Each manifestation in a Kaliyattom is known as Kolam. Kolam actually means "shape" or form God, goddess, hero or heroine have their own peculiar and specific forms, and each form has its own particular representative aspect. To bring out that aspect each Kolam has special features in face painting which is a work of difficult craftsmanship and is a unique piece of art. Some Kolams take eight to ten hours time to paint the face according to strict rules of tradition. In the same way the crowns, head dress, breast plates, arm ornaments, bangles, garland and above all the woollen or cotton garments are all so elaborately furnished and variously shaped that the figure of a Kolam is something to see and wonder. It is said that the vivid and masterly ornamental dressing of Kathakali has originated from this.
KURATHIYATTOM
Kurathi are a set of gypsies who go about from place to place telling fortunes. In this dance called Kurathiyattom, two Kurathis first enter dancing, in the guise of characters representing the wives of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva. Then they stage a controversy through songs over the exploits of their respective husbands. The favourable point in one's favour becomes the butt of ridicule at the other's hands and while one praises profusely the other condemns sarcastically.
THUMPI THULLAL
This is a dance in which only women participate. It is usually performed in connection with the Onam festival. All the girls are dressed in immaculate Onakkodi dress and ist round in a circle. At the centre of the circle sits the performer.
KUMMI
This is women's dance prevalent in Kerala. The dancers move in a circle and the hand gestures singnify reaping and harvesting. One of the women leads the singing with a favourite song while the rest take up the refrain. Each performer renders a new line in turn and the dancing stops when all get tired.
KADUVA KALI
This dance, also known as Pulikali, is performed during the Moharam season. Dancers realistically made up as tigers with appropriate costumes go about from house to house, dancing vigorously to the loud beating of instruments like Udukku, Thakal, etc.
KANNIYAR KALI
One of the centuries old, but well-known folk dance of Kerala, Kanniyarkali (also known as Desathukali) is a fast moving, militant dance from attuned to rhythmic devotional folk songs and asuravadyas. It is said to be a ritual offering in honour of the deity Bhagavathy.
PAKKANAR ATTOM
This art form is performed to drive out evil spirits from hons. It is believed that Pakkanar and his wife visit the hayses. They dance in tune with the beat of different drums. Usually this art form is performed during Onam festival.
KUTHIYOTTAM
This is in vogue in Thiruvananthapuram District, performed mostly in Devi temples. A performer, wearing a crown, similar to the used by the 'Ottanthulal artist, and three other characters, with three different facial make-ups, dance rhythmically to the background of percussion instruments. The songs are in praise of Durga, 'Padapattu', and 'Kalaripattu' and songs in praise of deities. It is usual to have partitioners of red silk at the performing arena.
THIRAYATTOM
Thirayattom is performed as part of festive celebrations in Kavus in Central Malabar. The word thira means lustre and the Thirayattom dance is said to cast radiacne by vertue of his gorgeous array, made all the more dazzling by the blaze of torches, made of clusters of dried coconut fronds.
OPPANA
Oppana is an exquistic folk art form performed traditionally among the muslim community in Kerala. The song and dance programme is performed by females to entertain the bride and by males to entertain the bridegroom.
MARGAM KALI
Margam Kali is an art from popular among the Syrian Christian community of the eastwhile Travancore. This consists of group dances and martial arts like parichamuttu kali. The theme of the songs revolves round the life of St. Thomas.
AADI VEDAN
Aadivedan is an ancient folk art prevalent in certain areas of Kannur district. Aadi and Vedan represent parvathy and siva. All the characters who enact these two roles normally belong to two different communities. It is performed during day time.
ARJUNA NRITHAM
Arujunanritham is a popular dance form in Alleppy and Kottayam districts. This is performed by one or two persons at night and the lighting is done by the traditional lamp called 'Nilavilakku'. Arjunan was proficient in dance among the Pandavas and he is supposed to have danced and sung praising Bhadrakali. Since the lower part of the garments of the dance is made of peacock feathers, the dance is also known as "Mayilpeeli Thookkam"
KUMMATTI
Kummattikali is a mask dance popular South Malabar. The dancers wear brightly painted wooden masks. During onam season groups of dancers donning masks and adorning themselves with leaves and grass go from house to house. The rhythm is provided by vibrating the string of a bow-like instrument called onavillu.
KOTHAMOORIYATTAM
This art forms is proformed in Kannur District. The leader along with the troupe go to each house, play on Chenda and begins to sing. Two characters with face masks made out of the stalk of coconut fronds and with yellow tassels of Kuruthola sing the refrain. Along with this they go through an enactment of comical gestures. There comedy charactors are known as Paniyans. Another character the representation of bull, worn round his waist, dances in peculiar style.
GARUDAN THOOKAM
This dance form is presented in some temples where the installed deity is Badrakali. Two or three dancers in the garb of Gardua, dance of the rhythm of percussion instruments. In imitation of Garuda (the bird king) the dangers preen the feathers with their breaks, carry snakes in the beak, dance with wings spread in circles, in an ecstacy of joy.
CHOOZHIKKALI
After commencing the performance, in a vacant lot, the performers go from house to house and perform this.
The costume of Chozhi consists of dried plantain leaves, tied all over the body. And two horns would be sticking out from the forehead. Kalan and Chitragupta wear black clothes and masks of terrifying aspect with fangs bared.
THALAMKALI (THALIKAKKALI)
This is an art form where physical culture amount much. It is prevalent culture amount much. It is prevalent in Malappuram district. It is said that this used to be popular as a performance during the celebrations of Thalikettu ( a ritual in which the young girls who attain puberty go through a mock marriage)The performers stand in a circle and sing to a rhythm. After that they carry plates in both palms and go through intricate twisting and turning.
THIDAMBU NRITHAM
This is prevalent in Kannur District and in some parts of Kozhikode District, in North Kerala. Namboodiris conduct the dance. Marars play on percussion instruments. One namboodiri to bear the Thidambu, seven players on percussion instruments, two persons to carry lamps, in all ten persons are needed to present this. The dance is performed with the decorated effigy of the Devi carried on the head. Foot work is most important and this is executed to the rhythm of the drums.
THEYYANNAM
This is a ritualistic art, performed by the Pulaya and Kurava communities. Theyyannam is found in Mavelikara, Pandalam and some places in Alappuzha District.When man turned to cultivation, his liking and respect for this began to increase. Though he cultivates different crops, he has a partiality for paddy cultivation. This is the theme of Theyyannam.
THEKKANUM THEKKATHIYUM
Popular in Palakkad and Malappuram Districts. This is handled by the Panars. Their daily profession is the making of palm leaf umbrellas.Two characters (one male and one female) and two percussion instrumentalists form a troupe. The characters sing, exchange dialogues and perform stylished movements, through well defined steps.
THOLPAVAKOOTHU
This is known as Pavakoothu and Nizhalkoothu. Prevalent in Palakkad and Ponnani Taluks. This is handled, traditionally, Pulavanmars. The pavakal, or puppets are made of deer skin, to represent characters in the Ramayana epic. The puppets are arranged behind a long curtain.
MAGACHUTTU
Popular in Thiruvananthapuram and Chirayinkizhu taluks and in Kilimanoor, Pazhayakunnummal and Thattathumala regions.Form among the eight performers, two each, twin around each other like serpents and rising up, battle it out with sticks. The techniques are repeated several times. Sandalwood paste on the forehead, a red towel round the head, red silk around the waist and bells round the ankles. These form the costume. This is a combination of snake workship and Kalaripayttu.
MALAYAN KETTU
This art form is in vogue all over Kannur District. This is fully ritualistic in scope.This is usually performed for the sake of those women who have miscarriages and who are advised by the astrologers to have this ritual.
FOLK PERFORMANCES OF KERALA
BY WOMEN
| Ammanattam | Kolkali | Oppana |
| Champazhukkakali | Koythu Nritham | Pakkanar Kuuthu |
| Chittukali Nritham | Krishnaleela | Pentharumokkali |
| Daivakkali | Kudamuthu | Parunthattam |
| Kadar Nritham | Kumbhattam | Pattichikali |
| Kaikottikkali | Kummi | Poochakali |
| Killiyadikali | Pulayarkali | Sarpam Thullal |
| Kinnamkali | Thiruvathirakali | Thumbi Thullal |
| Thalipeeli | Uripinnikkali | Valakali |
| Unjalikali | Mudiyattam | Vattakkali |
BY MEN AND WOMEN
| Adiyanthirakali | Kolattam Kiliyadikkali | Parayan Pooppada |
| Chattu | Kurathiyattam | Pulayankali |
| Chavittulaki | Malavettuvan Nritham | Sarpam Thullal |
| Chavittunatakam | Malayikkuthu | Seethangan |
| Edaya Nritham | Mannankuthu | Thacholikkali |
| Irula Nritham | Otten | Thullel |
| Gaddika | Paniyarkali | Vattakkali |
| Kakkarassi Natakam | Paravallikali | Koithu Nritham |
FOLK PERFORMANCES OF KERALA
BY MEN
Aleprem Thullal Kolam Thullal Paavakkathakali Adivedan Kolkkali Pallukali Aluvelakkali Koorankali Paniyarkali Andiyattam Kothamuri Pakkanarkali Aravanamuttu Kothamuriyattam Parichamuttukali Arjuna Nritham Kovi Nritham Patayani Chathankali Kozhipporukali Pavakkuthu Chavittukali Kumba Nritham Poorakali Chavittunatakam Kummatti Poothamkali Chavu Thullal Kuthirakali Porattukali Chozhikkali Kuthiyottam Sanghakali Dappukali/Daffumuttu Kuttichathanattam Sarpam Thullal Ezhamathukali Kurumarkali Suuramporu Garuda Nritham Kuruvarkali Taalamkali Garudan Thukkam Kuuliyattam Teyyam Golgandiyattam Maankali Thampurankali Ivarkali Malamkali Thappukottikali Kaalakali Malayankettu Thedikkottikali Kaduvakali Margamkali Theyyannam Kampeladikali Mariyattam Theyyattu Kambadikali Mudiyettu Thumbithullal Kanalattam Naikkarkali Thidambu Nritham Kannyarkali Narikkolam Tirayattam Karadiyattam Nagachuttu Vattakali Kavadiyattam Nayadikkali Vedan Thullal Kayyamkali Ochirakali Velakali Kiliithattukali Paana Villadichan Pattu
CLASSICAL DANCES
Classical dances are based fully or partly on the principles and techniques embodied in the ancient Hindu scriptures and technical texts on dance and allied arts. The earliest of these known scripts is Bharatha's Natya Shasatra believed to have been written around the second century B.C. Most of the prevailing systems of classical dancing governed by elaborate techniques with a high degree of refinement have had their origin in the dances of the common people. The difference between classical dancing and folk dancing is mainly that there is a deliberate attempt at artistry in the former. Sophistication along the norms of the scriptures of advance theories on dance and dramaturgy are strictly adhered to. The concept of portraying emotion, the grace of the individual dances and the virtuosity of the isolated poses are all important in classical dances. Emphasis has been given to different aspects of the dance, namely pure bodily movement, aids to dance like theme, song, instrumental music, the expression of emotions, moods and sentiments, the dress, ornaments, makeup and the stage.
Koothu, Koodiyattom, Patakom, Ashtapadiyattom, Krishnattom, Thullal, Mohiniyattom and Kathakali are the most important classical dances.
KOOTHU
This classical dance is performed by the members of the professional Chakyar cast and that too only in Koothambalam of temples. It is one of the oldest of teatrical arts peculiar to Kerala. The term Koothu literally means dance which may be taken as an index of the importance attached to dance in the original form of the art. As a matter of fact, the movements and facial expressions and the signs and gestures employed by the actor in Koothu are said to approximate most closely to the principles laid down in the authoritative Sanskrit treatise on the subject, Bharatha's Natya Sastra.
The actor recites stories from the epics (based on Sanskrit text) interpreting them in Malayalam, enlivening his narration with Thandava dance rhythms and also gestures and bodily postures which are clearly derived from Natya Sastra.
The Koothu is very much dominated by the comic element. Impersonated through mime and gesture and interspersed with occasional dances, the narrative art of the Chakyar is essentially dramatic. Humorous, witty analogies and allusions to topical, political and social events are brought in during the narration and the dancer gets ample facilities for criticizing men and things of local interest. Seldom does he miss an opportunity to make comic comments on contemporary life and society. He ridicules the follies and foibles of the age with impunity.
In actual performance the dancer stands on the platform of the Koothambalam adorned with his special type of headgear and peculiar facial make-up. He then offers prayers to the presiding deity of the particular temple where he is performing. After that he recites a verse from the Sanskrit text from which he intends to expound and then explains it in Malayalam.
The instruments used are a pair of cymbals and the mizhavu which is a big copper drum. A member of the Nambiar caste beats rhythm on the mizhavu at the required intervals. The cymbals are played invariably by women known as Nangiyars.
Koothu presented as a solo item by a Chakiyar is also known as Prabhandha Koothu. Occasionally, it is presented by a Nangiyar women, then it is called Nangiyar Koothu.
PATAKOM
This is another dance form similar to the Koothu in its technical content. But here the dance element is almost given up and the narration is done through an alternating prose and song sequences, the gestures being retained. A new literary form called Champu, which accommodated more and more of Malayalam idiom and vocabulary was used as text for Patakom. Literally means dissertation, patakom is performed by Nambiyars even outside temple precincts.
The dancer has a red head-dress and on the wrist a red silk. There are garlands around the neck and sandal paste lines across the forehead.
KOODIYATTOM
Instead of single Chakiyar a number of performers get together and stage dance-drama. That is why it is called koodiyattom, literally "dancing together" (The beginnings of Kerala dramaturgy can be traced to this dance). Both men and women partake in this performance. Abhinaya is the most important element in Koodiyattom. The texts are always in Sanskrit and the performance is a prolonged affair. It may take anything from a few days to a number of weeks.
All the four types of abhinaya, viz. Angikam, Vachikam, Sathvikam and Aharyam are fully utilized in Koodiyattom.
The plays are performed only in temple precincts as votive offerings. Abhinaya or acting is a three-fold or even four-fold process. Appropriate hand gestures and symbols are first shown when the words of the verse are spoken in a typically modulated tone. As the music is begun, the meaning of the words are translated into a language of bodily postures, attitudes and facial expressions. The third is a repetition of the first.
Koodiyattom is staged on the specially built temple theatre called Koothambalam. The stage is decorated with fruit-bearing plantains and bunches of tender coconuts and festoned with fronds of the coconut palm. A vessel overflowing with paddy is placed on the stage. Lighting is done with a tall oil lamp made of brass. Within a railed enclosure on the stage is a large copper drum called mizhavu with a high seat for the Nambiyar drummer. A Nangiyar woman plays the cymbal and occasionally recites the verses. The musical element is very much suppressed in Koodiyattom. At times special orchestral effects are introduced. The orchestra consists of an edakka, maddalam, a conch, pipe and horn.
There is facial make-up using colour schemes and patterns having symbolic value, though strict standardisation of types is absent. The make-up patterns as seen in the better-known Kathakali are borrowed from Koodiyattom.
In the actual performance, first the drum is sounded and then the Nangiyar woman recites the invocatory verse, (vandana slokam). After that a purificatory ritual of sprinkling holy water on the stage is done by the Nambiyar. Then there is an interlude of orchestra, after which the dance ritual ceremony called kriyachavittuka is performed by the Sutradhara. The next item is the stapana of the particular act. The main character is introduced in the next stage called Koothupurapadu in the background of the tense dramatic sense created by the full orchestra fury. Nirvahana , the next part of the drama, follows. This itself consists of three phases, the Anukrama, the Samkshepa and the Vistara respectively. Purushartha follows in which clown (Vidushaka), caricaturing the moods, is the hero. This is a singnificant departure from tradition and a remarkable feature of Koodiyattom. The drama now begins sluggishly and leisurely throug the long drawn out, detailed and elaborate abhinaya process.
The stage craft is simple, with hardly any stage setting. Koodiyyattom is perhaps the oldest dance-drama in existence in India.
ASHTAPADI ATTOM
This was a popular dance form based on the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva. It was more of a dramatic representation of the renowned lyrical play. Altogether there are only five characters, Krishna, Radha and three females. This form is now almost extinct (instruments chenda, maddalam, elathalam, chengala).
KRISHNANATTOM
A refinement of Ashtapadiattom, evolved by Manavedan, the Zamorin was Krishnanattom. The whole story of Krishna was cast into a drama-cycle which would need eight nights for serial production. Vilwamangalam, a Krishna devotee, helped in designing the costume of Krishna. The actors in this dance drama have to conform themselves to the ballet element and mimetic expression. The narrative song is left to the musicians.
Krishnattom was created as a votive offering and it survives in that capacity in the temple of Guruvayoor where it is still performed. The dance drama is based on the text Krishna-Geeta which is in Sanskrit. Many of the characteristics of the earlier ritual folk dances such as Thiyyattom, Mudiyettu and Theyyam are seen in Krishnanattom especially in the painting of the face in intricate pattenrs, and the use of masks and colourful, gorgeous costumes and head-dresses. The make-up costumes and ornaments used in Krishnanattom are almost similar to that seen in Kathakali, though in Krishnanattom some of the charaters are seen using painted masks made of wood. The gestural language and abhinaya are not very well developed. More importance is given to pure dance (nritta) and the stress is always on group movements and group compositions. All the eight night plays are full of beautiful dances. In no other dance could be seen so many charachers performing the same dance with the same facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, foot-work (and set to the same rhythm) with so much of co-ordination, and grace, e.g., Mullappoochutal in Rasalila (Sree Krishna with Gopoikas) Kaliyamardana Nritham etc.
Maddalam, elethalam and chengala are the musical instruments used.
RAMANATTOM
Legends say that an offshoot of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the Raja of Kottarakara, the later created the Ramanattom, the dance-drama on the life of Rama. It was also for serial enatment on eight successive days. Here facial abhinaya and hand gestures were given more importance. The songs were all in Malayalam. In course of time the masks were discarded and a richer variety in facial make-up was developed. It was this Ramanattom that developed into Kathakali.
KATHAKALI
Unique a month the Indian dance forms, Kathakali is the classical dance-drama of Kerala. Vivid and loquent in its characteristics mudras (hand sings), natural and impressive in gesture, graceful and rhythmic in movement, pleasing in choreography and above all delightful in wealth of imagery, Kathakali ranks high among the Indian dance forms.
For themes Kathakali draws upon the inexhaustible treasure trove of the ancient Puranas chronicling the lives, loves and conflicts of the gods and supermen of Indian mythology.
Noted for its archaic costumes, weird make-up and grand headgears, Kathakali is perhaps the only dance form in India in which the masculine aspect of the dance is preserved in its elemental vigour.
Kathakali as it is known today is not more than three to four hundred years old, even though its actual roots can be traced to at least 1500 years earlier. Kathakali marks the culmination of a long process of evolution during which the various histrionic arts of Kerala had their birth and development and paved the way for the eventual emergence of this composite art. Kathakali also symbolises a blending of the Arryan and Dravidian cultures, for in shaping its technique this dance form assimilated various elements which it borrowed freely from the dances, dramas and ritual performances associated with these cultures.
In reconstructing the history of Kathakali it is necessary to take into consideration practically every type of formalized dance, drama and dance-drama that existed in Kerala prior to the genesis of this art. Such a study should include the earliest types of stylized dance and drama in Kerala such as Chakiarkoothu and Koodiyattom, various ritual dances associated with the cult of Bhagavathi, such as the Mudiyettu, Thiyyattam and Theyyam, the socio-religious and martial dances such as the Sastrakali and Ezhamattukali and the laterly evolved dance-dramas such as the Krishnattom and Ramanattom. The art of Kathakali incorporates the characteristic features of many of these dances and dramas and it is safe to summarise that Kathakali evolved out of these earlier forms.
Kathakali is a complete art constituting three fine arts-Abhinaya (acting) and Nrithya (dancing) and Geeta (music). It is pantomime in which the actors do not speak or sing, but interpret their emotions through highly sensitive medium of appropriate gestures, picturesque hand-poses and vivid facial expression perfectly intelligible even to the uninitiated. Kathakali is both dramatic and a dance art. But primarily it is the former. Histrionics or Abhinaya predominates and that too is of a far profounder type than ordinary dramatic acting. It is not realistic art but belongs to the imaginative type spoken of in Bharatha's Natya Shastra.
Every feeling is idealized and expressed on the face with an intense vividness, which more than compensates for the absence of the spoken word. And every shade of such expression on the face is made to harmonize with the rhythm of the dance and melody of the music. Acting in Kathakali is not merely the expression of the subjective emotions of the human heart, but also an objective realization of the person, scenes, creatures and things around. It actually involves impersonation through the medium of art and herein consists the essential expansiveness of Kathakali, its pictorial splendour and its poetic sublimity.
Music is an important and essential element in Kathakali. The orchestra in it is composed of two vocal musician, one keeping time with a resounding song called chengala and the other with a pair of clanking cymbals called elathalam, a chenda player and maddalam player. The chenda is a cylindrical drum with a loud but sweet sound while the maddalam has the appearance of a big mridangam.
Kathakali music has developed into a distinctive type of singing known as the sopana style which is of a very slow tempo. There is neither raga, ragaalapana as such nor are there elaborations like niraval and swaral singing. Preserving the broad features of the ragas and adhering meticulously to the talas they sing the songs in such a manner as to give the actors full scope for abhinaya. There are two vocal musicians in Kathakali of whom the main one is known as ponani and the minor partner as the sinkidi. The Kathakali songs couched in rich poetic diction are among the gems of Malayalam literature.
The mudras (hand gestures) used as a substitute for spoken language are as much suited, if not more, for the purpose of dance and drama. To the accompaniment of the chenda, the maddalam, the chengala and the elethalam the musicians sing the words of a dialogue from behind, the meaning of which is vividly translated by the actors into the silent language of facial expressions, bodily attitudes and poses and figurations of the hands. As these songs proceed, the actors mute of word but eloquent of expression recreate the epic and bring to life a dream world to sheer fantasy. The actors act and dance in harmony with the rhythm as well as with the sense of the songs. The mudras form and inseparable part of the nrithya and abhinaya.
The characters in Kathakali are all mythological and so the question of their make-up cannot be settled on a realistic basis. They all have set modes of make-up and attire and adornment and are reduced to five main types, according to their real character or qualities. These types are usually known by the predominant color applied to the face or its pattern. These are pacha (green), Kathi (knife), thadi(beard), kari(black) and minukku(polished).
Virtuous and noble characters are in pacha. Proud aggressive and unrighteous characters belong to the kathi type. The bearded type known as thadi are of three varieties. The most aggressive and demoniac are known as chuvanna thadi (red beard), mythical and fabulous beings like the monkey-gods are known as vellathadi(white beard); aboriginals, forest-men and cave-dwellers are known as karutha thadi(black beards). The lowest type of beings like the aggressor are classed as kari(black). The gentle and spiritually inclined character (like women, sages, Brahmins etc.) come under the type known as minukku (polished).
The costume and ornamentation are elaborate and designed to heighten the superman effect. The large overcoats, the flowing scarves, the bulging skirts, the antique ornaments, the stirkingly opulent headdresses with streaming hair flowing down to the waist and covering the back-all create enlarged figures well befitting the sculptured facial features and produce tremendously impressive impersonations.
THULLAL
A solo dance exposition, the Thullal is of three types. Its origin is attributed to Kunchan Nambiar, a veritable genius and one of the foremost poets of Kerala. Though based on classic principles of Natya Shastra the technique of this art is not rigid. The songs, written in simple Malayalam, frank to outspoken wit and humour, the simplicity ofpresentation and the direct appeal to every day life made Thullal very popular.
The instruments used in Thullal are the maddalam and the cymbals. The cymbal player who tunes the rhythm, also assists the actor dancer(Thullakaran) in singing.
In actual performance the cymbal player first sings the invocation song when the dancer faces the orchestra and does obeisance. After that, with his back still to the audience the dancer does a slick flourish of step and body movements. Then he turns to the audience and the dance proper is begun. He first sings a verse and while the lines are being repeated by his musical assistance, he brings out the meaning through facial expressions, hand gestures and bodily postures. The roles of the raconteur and actor are perpetually interchanged with tremendous aesthetic efforts. In one moment he is the narrator but in the next he completely identifies himself with the narration.
It is to the dance that prime importance is given in Thullal. From the beginning to the end there is dance even though it lacks much of variety. To compensate for the monotony, sometimes the dancer executes some vigorous footsteps and rhythmic movements of the body.
Thullal is classified into three different types. Ottan, Seethankan and Parayan based on the difference in costume, dance and also the metre and rhyme of the Thullal songs.
Of all Thullal dances the Ottan Thullal is the most popular. The costume is peculiar and impressive. A long tape of cloth of white and red color is hooked around a waist string to form a knee-length skirt. A chest plate adorned with various types of coloured beads, glass and tinsel and other ornaments is also used. Gaudily painted wooden ornaments are worn at the wrist, and on the shoulders. Tinkling bells are tied to the legs just above the calf. The fact is painted green, the lips are reddened and the eyes are emphasized with black paint. The head-dress is colourfully decorated. The metre and rhyme of the Ottan Thullal songs are very fast, and the dance as such has a high tempo.
In Seethankan Thullal the metre and rhyme of the Thullal songs are a bit more slow than in Ottan Thullal and consequently dance is also slower in tempo. The dancer uses similar skirt as in Ottan Thullal. But the arms, wrists and head are adorned with ornaments made of fresh tender coconut fronds. There is no facial make-up except darkening of the eyes.
The Parayan Thullal is the slowest in tempo. Even the stance of the dancer is different from the other two. Here the dancer almost stands erect and explains the meaning of the songs by gestures. There is very little of the dance element or of action. The costume is also different. A red, flowery clothe is worn around the waist. A crown of black clothe adorns the head. Necklaces are used on the chest. The face is painted with light yellow.
MOHINIYATTOM
Mohini the temptress, is a recurring character in HIndu mythology. Attom means dance. It is seductive dance performed by women, sensuous in its appeal. In technique Mohiniyattom lies somewhere between Kathakali and Bharathanatyam, Lyrical in the extreme its keynote is coquetry. The symmetrical patterns of emotion flow in balanced nuances with smooth footwork, somewhat quickened body movements and special music.
Parallel to the Bharatanatyam of Tamil Nadu, solo Mohiniyattom dance is performed only by by women. The music is classical carnatic.
As the name implies it is the dance of the charmer. Its origin is a matter of conjecture, but it retains a lovely fusion of the parallel streams of dance in the eastern and western regions of South India. Combining the formal grace and elegance of Bharathanatyam, with the earthy vigour and dynamism of Kathakali the petalled nrita hands of the one with the wide stance of the other, the delicate expressions of the one with the stylized eye movements of the other, it co-ordinates the instinct with charm, subtle allure and seductive appeal. In the rendering of this style there is enchantment, grace delicacy and passion.
The technical structure of Mohiniyattom is fairly similar to that of Bharathanatyam. There are no abrupt jerks or leaps in Mohiniyattom nor is there any inordinately hard stamping of the foot. The gesture language of Mohiniyattom is largely similar to that of Bharathanatyam but it also incorporates elements from Kathakali tradition. And again, like Bharathanatyam, Mohiniyattom too has items of nritta, pure dance, as well as nritya, expressional dance.
Mohiniyattom is mainly the Lasya dance performed strictly according to scriptures of Batya Shastra. The repertory of Mohiniyattom as it is presented now consists of Cholkettu, Varnam, Padam, Thillana, Kaikottrikkali, Kummi and Swaram. It is well evident that the Kaikottikali and Kummi are later additions. Because of the special type of instruction associated with it the dance presents striking bodily poses and attitudes and exquisitely graceful foot-work. In its gestures and also with regard to the expression of the eye, Mohiniyattom is indebted to Kathakali.
If in Bharathanatyam the predominant moods are santham and veeram, in Mohiniyattom it is sringaram.
NEO-CLASSICAL DANCES
The neoclassical dances of Kerala represent a delicate fusion of the folk and classical traditions of Kerala's dances. But the fusion is not artistically complete to the extent that homogenous blending of the two dance forms has not been achieved to perfection. The neo-classical dances surfaced at some intermediate stage between the process of evolution from the folk tration to the classical tration. The neoclassical dance thus retain not only the essential flavours of the folk and classical traditions but project distinctive individuality of their own.
MEENAKSHI NATAKOM
Meenakshinatakom and Kamsanatakom are two crude dance dramas which are still in vague in some parts of Palakkad district. There are some scholars who believed that these dance are earlier than even Krishnanattom, Ramanattom etc. According to them, these dances are the Kerala counterparts of Teru Koothu of Tamil Nadu, the Veedhinatakom of Andhra Pradesh and the Yakshagana of Karnataka. But there are others who strongly argue that these two dances are hardly a hundred years old. Whatever that may be, both Meenakshinatakom and Kamasanatakom have the confluence of the characteristics of Mohiniyattom and Kathakali. The lasya of Mohiniyattom and the thandava of Kathakali are well mixed in the dance sequence of Meenakshinatakom. Even the Elakiattom of Kathakali, male characters have to be done by Meenakshi in Meenakshinatakom. The songs are all a mixture of Tamil and Malayalam. The make-up and customs bear considerable resemblance to that in Kathakali.
The characters are all allowed to speak.
DANCHAVITTU NATAKOM
The Portuguese influence in Kerala helped the spread of Christianity along the southwest coast. As a result, a new type of community was slowly brought into existence, which being cut off from its orginal setup, had to look upon the Westerner for cultural sustance. Out of this situation was born a new art form with songs, dialogues and dances, similar to the miracle plays of the West. They are known as Chavittunatakom. The stage settings, introduction of curtains constumes, masks, etc., show the influence of the West.
Genoa, Caralman Charitram, Nepoleon Charitram etc., are some of the important plays.
MODERN DANCES
Contributing to the already rich heritage of Kerala's dance art is the modern dance composition. Although they have no real roots in any of the above mentioned dance traditions they mime the characterstics of tribal, folk and classical type of dances. They manifest the growth and development of Kerala dances. Here efforts are made to combine choreography with classicism and fit traditional dance partners into new moulds. It has revealed a world of charm in its creation bringing a refreshing originality, a delightful native and a winsome simplicity. The Western type of dance forms called opera and ballet have come to be produced in purely local dance techniques.
Opera is a joint work of art produced by the union of poetry, drama, music and all subsidiary arts of the theatre.
Since singing and acting are to be done by the same person, the histrionic element is relegated more to the background. In opera, singers are often preferred to actors. The opera incorporates dances but the dance rhythm is not a continuous matrix in which the drama unfolds.
Ballet has this continuous rhythm, using expressive postures and movements involving the whole body. The mature gestural language of the Kathakali tradition is also mixed sometimes. The ballet relies mainly on instrumental music.
Folklore
Kerala has a folklore which is unique in its richness and variety. Innumerable are the traditions which are current in Kerala. There are traditions about the origin of the State, religious, festivals, temples, etc. The Parasurama legend relating to the origin of Kerala, the St. Thomas tradition relating to the origin of Christianity and the Mahabali legend relating to the origin of Onam have the pride of place among these traditions. Each temple in Kerala has a Sthalapurana which throws light on some aspect or other of early Kerala culture.
Kerala has its own folk tales which deal with certain interesting personalities and their lives. A famous character who figures as the hero of a typical folk tale is Naranath Bhrandan (the eccentric Naranath) whose man pastime was to roll heavy stones upto the top of the hill and then roll them down in order to emphasise the truth that it is not easy for man to reach the top but not at all difficult to lose the position. It is worth mentioning in this connection that the Aithihyamala by Kottarathil Sankunni is a treasure house of folklore and legends current in different parts of Kerala.
The people of Kerala belonging to all castes and communities have their rich collection of folk songs which deal with a variety of themes. They mirror the joys and sorrows and the hopes and aspirations of the common people. The Vanchipattukal or boat songs sung by those who row the boats either during boat festivals or ordinary trips deal with diverse themes of human interest to the common man. The labouring classes who earn by the sweat of their brow have their own characteristic songs which inspire them to put in their best by singing them in chorus. Special mention may be made in this context of the Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads), the Tekkan Pattukal (Southern Ballads) the Palli pattukal and the Mappila Pattukal. The Vadakkan Pattukal and the Thekkan Pattukal deal with the exploits of the heroes and heroines of old. The Pallipattukal composed by Christians for being sung on marriage occasions contain a large admixture of Syriac, Latin and Tamil words. Many of them deal with Church history and lives of Saints. The Mappila Pattukal are the folk songs of the Mappilas (Muslim) of Malabar composed in colloquial Malayalam and sung in a distinctive tune. They are composed in a mixture of Malayalam and Arabic and have a special charm of their own. They deal with diverse themes such as religion, love satire, heroism, etc. The Mailanchi Pattu, the Oppana Pattu and the Ammayi Pattu belong to the category of Mappila Pattukal dealing with love and marriage and they were sung in chorus in connection with marriage festivals till recently. The Mappila songs of various types form part of the heritage of Malayalam today.
Theatre
Kuthu and Kudiyattom are the earliest of the theatrical arts of Kerala. The Tamil epic Silappathikaram refers to the performance of 'Kuthu' in the theatre hall by a Kutta Sakkaiyan of Paraiyur in order to entertain the Chera king Senkuttuvan and his queen. This is clear evidence of the antiquity of 'Kuthu' as an art form. 'Kuthu' is a monoact in which a single actor, the Chakiar, acts the role of all the characters to the accompaniment of mizhavu (a close - necked copper metal drum) played by the Nambiar and cymbals played by the Nangiar (Woman of the Nambiar community). The Chakiar expounds puranic stories punctuating his narration with illustrations from contemporary life. He enjoys unfettered privilege to crack jokes even at the expense of the dignitaries present in the audience and the latter have no right to report. Kudiyattam is a theatrical art which presents a full-fledged drama or select portions thereof. More than two or three actors appear on the stage at the same time as in a modern drama. The Chakiar performs the role of the male characters and the Nangiar that of the female characters. The Nangiars also sound the cymbals and recite the Sanskrit verses which the Chakiar enacts. A feature of Kudiyattam is that there is a Vidushaka or clown who recites the Malayalam translation of every Sanskrit verse enacted by the Chakiar. The Attaprakarams and Kramadipika of poet Tolan give detailed guidance in regard to the mode of acting.
Kudiyattam is not today such a popular art as Kathakali and it is performed only in a few major temples like Irinjalakuda, Perumanam, Kottiyur etc. Its failure to reform itself in response to the needs of changing times is responsible for the decline in its popularity as a performing art. Nevertheless, the contribution of Kudiyattam to the evolution of the Kerala stage is substantial. It is performed in temples within multi-pillared theatres called Kuthambalams built by expert architects according to the norms laid down in Bharatamuni's Natyasastra. The Kuthambalam is a typical specimen of Kerala architecture. It is also a store - house of the finest sculptures, particularity wood carvings. The ceiling of the Kuthambalam is a typical specimen of Kerala architecture. It is also a store - house of the finest sculptures, particularly wood carvings and paintings depicting scenes from the Epics and the Puranas. With Kudiyattam becoming an obsolete art the Kuthambalams are no longer constructed in Kerala temples. The old Kuthambalams in temple premises now present a deserted look. It deserts mention that the Kuthambalam architecture has recently influenced the construction of a unique theatre or Natyagriha in the Kerala Kalamandalam at Cheruthuruthi.
Chavittu Natakam which is now almost defunct is theatrical art evolved by the leaders of the church, under the guidance of the Portuguese missionaries, as a Christian alternative to the Hindu Kathakali. It presents stories from the lives of Christian saints and the history of Christianity. Unlike in Kathakali, the actors in Chavittu Natakam not only speak and sing but also stamp on the wooden platform with their feet to the tune of songs and beating of drums. It is because acting and stamping from important elements in Chavittu Natakam that it has come to be called so. The movements of the actors on the stage are more lively and vigorous than graceful or artistic. Women are not allowed to participate in Chavittu Natakam. Music, vocal and instrumental, has an important place in this art. Though it developed as the Christian counter part of Kathakali, the Chavittu Natakam is modeled more after the European Opera and Ballet than after Kathakali. The stage in Chavittu Natakam was an unusually large one and it could accommodate as many as fifty actors at a time along with the members of the orchestra.
In modern times Malayalam drama as a form of popular entertainment has acquired enormous popularity. In the latter half of the 19th century the translation of Abhijnana Sakuntalam by Kerala Varma Valia Koyi Tampuran and its successful presentation on the stage gave a fillip to Malayalam drama. The successful enactment of Tamil musical plays by drama troupes from Tamil Nadu in different parts of Kerala helped to hasten this trend. The composition of a series of short plays with historical themes by C.V. Raman Pillai and their enactment by amateur clubs in Trivandrum marked a turning point in the evolution of modern Malayalam theatre. Dramas with social themes soon replaced historical plays. Special mention may be made of V.T. Bhattatiripad's Adukkalayil Ninnu Arangathekku and K. Damodaran's Pattabakki. With the increasing popularity Malayalam drama as a medium of popular entertainment professional troupes like the KPAC, the Kalidasa Kala Kendram and Kalanilayam have made their mark in the field in recent times. Thus the professional theatre has come to acquire its place in the social and cultural life of modern Kerala.
Music
Music like dancing, had its origin in the primitive dances and plays, developed by the ancient people in propitiation of the deities of the hills and forests. The development of such art forms as Kuthu Kudiyattam, Astapadi Attan, Krishnanattam, Ramanattam, Kathakali etc., gave a fillip to music in later days. An indigenous classical music called the Sopanasangita developed itself in the temples of Kerala, in the wake of the increasing popularity of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda or Ashtapadi. The Kathakali padas composed by a galaxy of scholars like Irayimman Thampi and the Tullal songs of Kunjan Nambiar also enriched the musical culture of Kerala.
The reign of Swati Tirunal, the ruler of Travancore, is called "the Augustan Age of Kerala Music". A great patron of music, he attracted to his court some of the gifted musicians of the age. In collaboration with his Guru Meruswami who was well-versed in Hindustani and Karnatic music, Swati Tirunal composed a number of songs in popular ragas in a variety of languages. Four musicians from Tanjore by anme Vativelu, Ponnayya, Chinnayya and Sivanandan, otherwise known as the "Tanjore Quartet", lived in his court. To Vativelu goes the credit for the introduction of violin in Karnatic music. The Tanjore brothers were also highly gifted in Bharata Natyam and under their influence Swati Tirunal composed Varnas, Swarajits, Padas and Tillanas for staging this dance form. Subbukkutty Ayya, a master of Vina, was also leading light in Swati's court.
In addition to the musicians mentioned above who came to Swati's court from outside Kerala, several gifted local musicians also enjoyed his patronage, the most celebrated among them being Shadkala Govinda Marar. Marar was a rare musical prodigy. He devised a Tamburu with seven strings instead of the usual four. He also achieved the unique distinction of being able to sing pallavis into six degrees of time and this won for him the title Shadkala. At Swati Tirunal's instance, Marar went on a futile mission to Tiruvayyur to fetch Tyagaraja to the royal court. Tyagaraja was so much impressed by an inspired musical performance of Govinda Marar at the place that he composed and sang on the spot that famous Telugu song "Entaro mahanubhavalu, Anstariki Vandanamu" (There are ever so many great men in this world and I bow to all of them). Two other Kerala musicians who adorned Swati's court were Paramesware Bhagavatar of Palghat and Maliyakkal Krishna Marar. Irayimman Tampi, a close associate of Swati Tirunal, was also a musician and composer of high calibre who lived in the royal court and collaborated with the Maharaja in his efforts to promote the cause of cultural development.
The tradition of Kerala in the field of music has continued unsullied in modern times. To the galaxy of modern Kerala musicians belong such stalwarts as Vina Kalyanakrishna Bhagavatar, Kathakalashepam Anantarama Bhagavatar, Palghat Mani and Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavatar who have substantially enriched Karnatic music by their valuable contributions.
Kerala has developed its own typical temple arts in which instrumental music plays an important part. Chenda Melam which is played with such instruments as Chenda, Kombu, Kuzhal etc., is a feature of all temple utsavams. Tayambaka which involves the elaborate display of talas on a classical piece of drum (Chenda) is also typical of Kerala. It is performed in several sessions, each session having its climaxes and anticlimaxes. Panchavadyam is another unique art in which the sounds emanating from five musical instruments, (Maddalam, Idakka, Timila, Kombu and Elathalam) and two auxiliaries, Sankku (Conch) and Kuzhal, in varying pitches are synchronized. As in Tayambakam so too in Panchavadyam, each session lasts for hours. Nagaswaramelam, otherwise called Pandimelam, is another set of Vadyams played in connection with temple pujas and on such auspicious occasions as marriages.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF KERALA
Musical instruments are classified as Ghana (Idiophonic instruments which are struck against each other, Avanadda (Membrophonic percussion instruments like drums) Sushira (Aerophonic wind instruments) Tata (Cholodophonic stringed instruments)
Aramani Chandravalayam Chengala Elathalam Thalara Kaimani Kinnam Kool Kuzhithalam Piriyankoolu Ponthi Villu Cheenam Kaalam Kombu Kurum Kuzhal Kuzhal Nagarwaaram Otakkuzhal Peepi , Sankhu Aravana Chenda Chettivadayam Dakka Davil Dolu Edakka Kadumthuti Maddalam Mattaalam Mrindangam Mizhavu Murasu Nagaari Nagaaram Para Sudhamaddalam Tammittan Thappatta Tappu Takil Toppi Maddalam Timila Tudi Udukku Urumi Nanthuny Pullavan Kudam Pullavan Veena Tamboru , Veena Painting
Kerala has a tradition in the field of painting as is evidenced by the murals in temples, places and churches. The murals of Tirunandikkara (now in Kanyakumari District) and Tiruvanchikulam are reckoned as the earliest specimens of Kerala painting. These have been assigned to the period from the 9th to the 12th century A.D. Most of the murals now seen in Kerala temples belong to the period from 15th century onwards. The murals in the Sri Padmanabha temple, Trivandrum, depicting Puranic themes are noted for their remarkable finish and grace and they belong to the period from the middle of the 17th to the 18th century when the pictorial art enjoyed full State patronage. The Vishnu temple at Trikodithanam, the Siva temples at Ettumanur and Vaikom, the Subramonia temple, Udayanapuram, the Vadakkunathan temple, Trichur, the Krishna temple, Triprangode are among the many temples of Kerala which contain exquisite mural paintings.
Mural paintings with Hindu religious themes may be seen in the main places. The Padmanabhapuram palace has its topmost floor (Upparika malika) more than forty murals depicting such themes as Anantasayanan, Lekshminarayana, Krishna with Bopis, Nataraja as Dakshinamurthi, Sastha on hunt etc. The bed chamber (Palliyara) and four other chambers in the Dutch Palace, Mattancheri, contain murals depicting scenes from the Ramayana and Hindu mythology. The Krishnapuram Palace at Kayamkulam has preserved a large panel on Gajendramoksham which has been assigned to the first half of the 18th century. The Natyagriha recently built in the Kalamandalam at Cheruthuruthi (1977) contains the latest specimens of mural paintings in Kerala.
The churches of Kerala contain paintings which depict characters and scenes from Christian mythology. The paintings of Virgin Mary in the churches at Edappalli and Vechur are of deep religious significance to the devotees. The Orthodox Syrian churches at Cheppad at Mulanthuruthi contain interesting murals. The outer walls of the Kanjur church have a huge mural which depicts the scene of a battle fought between the armies of Tipu Sultan on the one side and those of the English East India Company, aided by the bare - footed local militia, on the other.
Swati Tirunal, the great ruler of Travancore, extended generous patronage to the art of painting. Alagiri Naidu, a distinguished painter from Maduraj adorned his Court. He gave training in the art of painting to Raja Raja Varma of the Kilimanur royal family and the latter in his turn trained up his talented nephew Raja Ravi Varma. The well-known European oil painter, Theodore Jenson, also initiated Raja Ravi Varma into the technique of European oil painting and helped him to achieve international renown. The innumerable pictures of Gods and Goddesses painted by Raja Ravi Varma which adorn most of the Hindu homes all over India are even today objects of mass worship. Raja Ravi Varma's own sister, Mangalabhai Tampuratti, specialised herself in painting pictures of women and children which won universal appreciation from connoisseurs of art. In modern times, Kerala produced two outstanding painters, viz., K. Madhava Menon and K.C.S. Panikar. The former excelled in the portrayal of plant and animal life. A refreshingly original style of his own is Panikkar's legacy in the field.
Architecture
Kerala has made its notable contributions to the science of architecture, both secular and religious. The Tantrasamuchaya, Vastuvidya, Manushyalaya-Chandrika and Silparatna are well-known treatises on the subject.
The Manushyalaya Chandrika is a work devoted to domestic architecture. The traditional Kerala house is a quadrangular building called Nalukettu constructed strictly in accordance with the principles of Tachu Sastra (Science of Architecture). It was located in a self contained compound and was specially designed to cater to the needs of the huge tarawads of old under the Marumakkathayam (matrilineal) system. The Nalukettu was so called because it consisted of four blocks viz., the Vadakkini (northern block), Padinjattini (western block), Kizhakkini (eastern block) and Thekkini (southern block). The house was generally built of laterite plastered with Chunam and the roofs were tiled or thatched with the leaves of palmyrah or coconut trees. The wood work of the building was usually solid and beautifully carved. It may also be noted that the old palaces of Kerala represent the style of traditional domestic architecture. The most important palaces that deserve mention are the Padmanabhapuram Palace (Kanyakumari District), the Dutch Palace at Mattancheri and the Krishnapuram Palace near Kayamkulam. In recent times domestic architecture has undergone significant changes in style and design. The houses are now built only to accommodate single households. Cement concrete houses have taken the place of the traditional houses made of brick set in either mud or lime.
The Kerala temple has a district architectural style which has been acquired as a result of a long process of evolution. The rock-cut temples are among the earliest known of the temples of Kerala and they are assigned to the period prior to 800 AD. They come mainly under two groups, the southern group and the northern group. The former includes the rock-cut temples of Vizhinjam, Madavurppara, Kottukal and Kaviyur and the latter of those of Trikkur, Irunilacode and Bhrandanpara. The Saivite cult dominated the architectural style of the temples of both these groups. Those of southern group are of Pandya origin and of the northern groups. Those of southern group are of Pandya origin and of the northern group of Pallava origin. In addition to these two groups of rock-cut temples, there is also the rock-cut temple of Kallil near Perumbavur which is at present a Bhagavathi temple, but was formerly a Jain Shrine.
The structural temple of Kerala had its origin during the 9th century A.D. The Krishna temple at Trikkulasekharapuram near Tiruvanchikulam and the Kizhthali Siva temple nearby are dated to this period on the basis of inscriptional and stylistic evidences. The origin of the Kandiyur Siva temple is ascribed to 823 AD on the basis of clear inscriptional evidence. In the course of centuries Kerala evolved its distinctive types of temple architecture each of which is associated with some area or other in the State. The Kerala temples have been built in square, rectangular, circular, apsidal and elliptical ground plans. The dominance of the circular shrine is a unique feature of temple architecture in Kerala. The southern half of the State has a preponderance of circular shrines. The apsidal temples lay scattered all over the west coast up to Trivandrum but there is a concentration of this type in central Kerala. The rectangular and elliptical ground plans can be seen only in a few temples in Kerala. As the rectangular plan was more suited for enshrining Vishnu as Anantasayanam, the Sri. Padmanabha Swami temple, Trivandrum, follows this type. The Siva temple at Vaikom is built on the elliptical plan. It may also be noted that majority of the Kerala temples have walls made of laterite blocks, but some made entirely of granite except the superstructure may also be in wood carvings, representing Puranic stories. The slopping roof and the lavish use of wood have also invested the Kerala temples with a distinct style of their own.
In the early period the Christians of Kerala seem to have built their churches after the model of Hindu temples, as is evidenced by the alleged action of Vasco-da-Gama in entering a Kali temple at Calicut mistaking it for a Christian church. They adopted for their churches the temple plan comprised of a four-sided sanctuary with a large pillared hall in the front. The church had also a tower which, like the Sikhara above the Garbhagriha of the temple, soared to the maximum height. The indigenous tradition which influenced church architecture continued without break till the coming of the Portuguese in 1498 AD. As part of their policy of Latinisation of the Church is Kerala, the Portuguese introduced innovations in the design of church buildings. The massive arch replaced the thick entrance door and stained glass windows were installed to allow more ventilation. The sanctum chamber (Madubaha) was attractively ornamented with statues made of wood or clay as well as with beautiful wall paintings. The first church to be built in the new style was Santo Antonio, the present St. Francis church, Cochin. The St.Francis church provided the model for the construction or more churches in India.
In modern times styles of church architecture from outside have influenced the construction of churches in Kerala. The Puthen Palli at Trichur with its arches, vaults, steeples, flying buttresses and stained glass windows has been built after Gothic style. The St.Joseph's Cathedral of the Latin Christians at Palayam, Trivandrum and the Kothamanglam church are Romanesque in their architectural style. The St.Thomas Pontifical shrine, Kodungallur, resembles the St. Peter's Church in Rome. The new Orthodox Syrian church at Kolancherri (the church of St.Paul and St.Peter) is one of the finest specimens of modern church architecture in Kerala.
Mosque architecture which drew inspiration from Persian and Turkish tradition in north India had no influence on mosque architecture in Kerala till recently. The traditional Kerala mosque is a simple two-storied building with tiled roofs. Its outer walls are built on a basement similar to that of a Kerala temple. It has a central hall meant for prayers with corridors on all four sides. As in the case of temples and churches wood has been used profusely in the construction of the Kerala mosques. But there are a few mosques, like the Jumamasjid at Palayam, Trivandrum and Puthiya Palli at Calicut in Kerala now which are reminiscent of the Islamic style of architecture prevalent in north India.
Sculpture
The stone and wood carvings of Kerala show the high level of sculptural excellence attained by Kerala artists. The earliest specimen of stone carvings in Kerala may be seen in the Edakkal Mala in Sultan's Battery in Wynad. They depict human and animal figures and objects of human use and symbols. It has not been possible to fix the date of these stone carvings with any degree of accuracy. In the rock-cut temples of the post-Sangam period, mentioned earlier, are found some of the specimens of early sculptural art. While the sculptures in the southern group show traces of Pandyan influence, those in the northern group are reminiscent of Pallavan influence. The stone images of the Buddha sittings in the yogasana posture discovered from such places as Karumadi, Mavelikkara, Bharanikkavu, Maruthurkulangara and Pallikkal are also among the finest examples of early Kerala stone sculpture. They are believed to show traces of the influence of the Buddhist art of Sri Lanka. The Jain images of Parswanatha, Mahavira and other Tirthankaras obtained from such places as Kallil, Chitaral, Sultan's Battery, Pallikunnu etc., also form an invaluable part of the sculptural heritage of Kerala.
The temples of Kerala contain exquisite sculptures, particularly in stone, which exhibit diverse influences such as Pandya, Chola, Vijayanagar etc. The figures of deities and animals and of dance scenes on the walls and balustrades of temples are typical of the temple sculpture of Kerala. The Trikkodithanam Vishnu temple (11th century) is noted for its two Yazhi panels depicting two types of ancient Kerala dances, viz., Kudaikuthu and Kudakuthu. The Parasurama shrine at Tiruvallam has interesting panels depicting animals like elephants and lions. The Siva temple at Kandiyur has exquisite stone sculptures depicting puranic legends and myths. In the Haripad Subramonia temple there is an imposing stone figure of Hanuman, with its face looking upwards. The sculptures in the Sri. Padmanabhaswami temple, Trivandrum, the Janardana temple, Varkala and the Siva temple, Vaikom, are the products of the influence of the later Vijayanagar and Nayak styles. The Sri Padmanabhaswami temple is, in fact, a treasure house of all that is best in the 18th century stone sculpture. The Kulasekhara mandapa and the Siveli mandapa in this temple are embellished with masterpieces of stone sculpture belonging to the 18th century. The scenes from the Puranas and the Epics and the story of Bhagavatham have been executed with remarkable finish and grace in small relief's.
The churches of Kerala have also enriched the sculptural tradition. In many churches may be seen huge granite Cross erected on beautifully carved granite platform, eg., the churches at Kaduthurthi (Valiapalli), Changanacherry, Kanjur, Ankamali and Kuruvilangadu. A familiar piece of sculpture seen in churches is the one depicting the scene of the Crucifixion. The baptismal fonts or basins used in the churches for carrying out be sacrament of Baptism are fine examples of stone sculpture. A unique piece of sculpture seen in some Kerala churches is the Persian Cross. It is formed by the inter-section in the centre and at right angles of two bars equal in length bearing inscriptions. The wings of this Cross also end with floral designs. Among the most famous of Persian Cross is the one seen at the churches at Kadamattom, Kaduthuruthi, Kottayam, Parur and Alangad.
The wood carvings in Kerala temples show the art at its best in the same way as the stone sculptures. The most common of the wood carvings are seen on the namaskara mandapas. They depict figures of Navgrahas on the ceiling and Puranic figures on the rafters and beams. The Kuthambalams are also noted for their fabulous wood carvings, as for example, those in the temples of Subrahmonia at Kidangur and Haripad. Wooden walls with beautiful carvings are also seen in several temples. In addition, there are wooden bracket figures, sculptural columns etc. The Mahadeva temple, Katinamkulam, the Sri Mahadeva temple, Kaviyur, the Narasimha temple, Chathankulangara, the Sri Vallabha temple, Tiruvalla, the Sri Rama temple, Triprayar and the Krishna temple, Trichambaram are some of the temples noted for exquisite carvings.
Wood carvings of excellent quality may be found on the altar, the pupils, the doors, the beams and the ceilings of some of the churches. The St.Thomas church Mulanthuruthi, the Cheriapalli at Kaduthuruthi, the churches at Koratti and Irinjalakuda, the St.George's church, Edappalli, and the All Saint's Church, Udayamperur are among the churches noted for their wood carvings. "The Last Supper of Christ" carved in wood in the Mulanturthi church is a star attraction.
Handicrafts
Industrial arts and handicrafts form an invaluable part of the Cultural heritage of Kerala. Metal crafts have the pride of place among the traditional arts. Bell-metal casting is an old time industrial art. It has involved mainly two kinds of activities. Images or idols of deities made out of copper, bronze and brass are used for consecration in temples and other religious purposes. Huge Varpus (shallow basins of hemi-spherical shape), multi-layered lamps and household utensils are all made of these metals. These products are noted for their high degree of perfection.
Lamps of the most artistic beauty are also made by Kerala craftsmen. The Greek lamp (Changalavatta), the Archana lamp, the Arati Dipa etc., deserve mention in this context. The Aranmula metal mirror has attained fame among the products of the bell metal industry. A product of an accident in metal casting, it is made of an alloy of copper and tin and resembles the glass mirror in every respect in point of utility. The Koftagari work, one of the popular metal crafts of India, is also being practiced by a few artisans in Trivandrum. Figures of deities, landscapes, floral designs and fancy articles of a wide variety are produced in Koftagari.
Wood craft is one of the ancient arts of Kerala as is testified to by the temples and churches of the State which abound in wood carvings. Items of furniture like chairs, tables settees, sofas, almirahs, cots, radio castings etc., and models of animals and deities, toys and Kathakali accessories produced by Kerala craftsmen are very much in demand. The models of caparisoned elephants and the carvings of Kathakali dance-dolls are items of popular demand.
The craftsmen of Kerala have also developed a variety of handicrafts using the rich wealth of flora in the State. Screwpine mat weaving is one of such handicrafts. Such articles as pillow covers, cushions, vanity bags, purses, hats etc., are also made of screw pine. The art of weaving bamboo-reed mats, baskets and fancy articles is also one of the simplest of Kerala handicrafts. Kora grass is similarly used for making mats of different sizes and colours. Rattan is used in the manufacture of articles of daily use like chairs, settees, teapoys, cradles, trays, shopping bags and a variety of other utility-cum-fancy articles. The coconut shell is used for the manufacture of such articles of utility and beauty as lamp stands, flower vases, ashtrays etc. Coir carpets and mattings produced in many attractive designs and colours find a ready market in India and abroad.
Lace and embroidery work of high quality is being done by women in several parts of Kerala. The Talangara village of Kasargod taluk is famous for the textile cap making industry. The cotton caps manufactured here find a ready market in the African and Gulf countries.
Ivory carving is another traditional art of Kerala. The art was given an impetus by Swati Tirunal Maharaja. An ivory throne made by Swati Tirunal is still preserved as a show piece. The craftsmen engaged in this art at present produce a variety of models of mythological characters, animals, birds, cigarette cases etc., to cater to different tastes. A typical specimen of ivory carving produced in Kerala is that of the snake boat (Chundan vallam) and it is cherished by tourists to the State as a memento. The craftsmen engaged in ivory carving also use other materials like the buffalo born for practicing their art.
The jewelry of Kerala is noted for its artistic perfection. Each caste or community had its typical ornament. An ornament of the Nair women was Nagapadam or serpent hood, so called after the shape of the pendant. An ear ornament called Toda, a double convex disc, was worn after dilating the earlobes. Mukkuthi was an ornament for nose and Kappu for the wrist. The most important ornaments for the neck were Addyal, Yantram, Avil Mala and Puli Nakham. Cherutali was a kind of necklace worn loose over the breast by Namboodiri women while Kasu Mala and Oddyanam were used by Tamil Brahmin. A kind of heavy guilt brass ring called Mekka Motiram was worn by Christian women after boring their ears in several places. Ottezhapathakkam, Kombu, Tala etc., were also typical Christian ornaments. Though most of the traditional ornaments mentioned above have become defunct now, the Kerala women are still found of ornaments, and jewelry items like necklaces, bangles, chains, earrings, studs etc., are now made by Kerala goldsmiths in a variety of attractive designs.